Windscreen pillars can block your view, particularly at junctions. Those road users who are most at risk of not being seen are cyclists, motorcyclists and pedestrians. Never rely on just a quick glance.

Provided they're breathing, unconscious casualties shouldn't usually be moved. The exception to this is when there's further danger; for example, from other traffic or from fire. Moving a person unnecessarily could cause further injury.

If someone is suffering from severe burns, you should douse the burns with a clean, cool, non-toxic liquid. If any clothing is stuck to the wound, don't try to remove it.

At a road traffic incident, there's a real danger of further collisions and fire, so only approach if it's safe. Get someone to call the emergency services and, if there's an injured casualty, first check if they're breathing. If they're not breathing, you may need to give chest compressions until the ambulance arrives.

When following a large vehicle, keep well back. If you're too close, you won't be able to see the road ahead and the driver of the long vehicle might not be able to see you in their mirrors.

If you have to pass an obstruction, such as a parked vehicle on your side of the road, you'll need to cross, either partly or fully, to the other side of the road. This could put you at risk from approaching traffic. You should give way to oncoming traffic if there isn't enough room for you both to continue safely.

Always use your headlights at night on a motorway unless you've stopped on the hard shoulder. If you have to use the hard shoulder, switch off the headlights but leave the parking lights switched on to help other road users see your vehicle.

Always check road and traffic conditions in all directions before reversing into a side road. Keep a good lookout throughout the manoeuvre. Remember that as you reverse in, the front of your vehicle will swing out and may create a hazard to passing traffic. Be aware of this danger. If you feel there's a risk, wait for the traffic to clear.

The interior mirror of most vehicles can be set to the anti-dazzle position. You'll still be able to see the lights of the traffic behind you, but the dazzle will be greatly reduced.

If you see a bus ahead, watch out for pedestrians. They may not be able to see you if they're crossing behind the bus.

If you want to turn right from a junction but your view is restricted, you'll need to stop, then ease forward until you can see whether it's safe to move out. Don't commit to emerging until you've seen that it's safe to do so. If you don't know, don't go.

Pedestrians walking on a road with no pavement are advised to walk facing oncoming traffic. With this knowledge, you can anticipate their presence and so give yourself time to react, if necessary, as you negotiate the bend.

In good conditions, one useful method of checking that you've allowed enough room between you and the vehicle in front is the two-second rule. To check for a two-second time gap, choose a stationary object ahead, such as a bridge or road sign. When the car in front passes the object, say, 'Only a fool breaks the two-second rule'. If you reach the object before you finish saying this, you're too close.

Never obstruct drivers who wish to pass. Speeding up or driving unpredictably while someone is overtaking you is dangerous. If someone overtakes and pulls into the gap in front of you, drop back to maintain a two-second gap.

There are times when other drivers make incorrect or ill-judged decisions. Stay calm and don't retaliate or react aggressively. Always consider the safety of other road users, your passengers and yourself.

Before turning right onto a dual carriageway, make sure that the central reservation is wide enough to protect your vehicle. If it's not, you should treat the dual carriageway as one road and check that it's clear in both directions before pulling out. Otherwise, you could obstruct part of the carriageway and cause a hazard, both for yourself and for other road users.

When a vehicle is facing downhill, it will try to roll forward when the parking brake is released. Applying the footbrake before releasing the parking brake ensures control is maintained.

Any vehicle stopped on the hard shoulder of a motorway is at risk from passing traffic. For this reason, don't attempt to make repairs to your vehicle while it's on the hard shoulder. Make your way to the nearest emergency telephone to call for assistance.

If there are no speed-limit signs, street lights usually indicate a 30 mph speed limit.

As you approach left-hand bends, keep to the middle of your lane. Don't move to the centre of the road to improve your view. This could put you too close to oncoming traffic. A vehicle coming the other way might be running close to or over the centre of the road as it comes around the bend.

All motor vehicles are fitted with a horn; its purpose is to warn other road users of the vehicle's presence. You mustn't sound the horn between 11.30 pm and 7.00 am in a built-up area or when you're stationary, except when another road user poses a danger.

By taking a position well to the left as you enter a right-hand bend, you'll improve your view around the bend. This will help you to see any hazards as soon as possible. Positioning well to the left also reduces the risk of collision with an oncoming vehicle that may have drifted over the centre line.

On a three-lane motorway, you should travel in the left-hand lane unless you're overtaking. This applies regardless of the speed at which you're travelling.

On occasions, other road users may make a mistake or lack judgement. When this happens, try not to let it annoy you. Don't react by showing anger, sounding your horn, flashing your headlights or shouting. A safe driver remains calm and makes allowances for others.

In some situations, you may feel that your indicators can't be seen by other road users. If you think you need to make your intention more clearly seen, give the appropriate arm signal.

When following a large vehicle, you need to keep well back to help you to see around it. You can only judge whether it's safe to overtake when you have a clear view of the road ahead. If another vehicle comes past you and fills the gap, drop further back to keep a safe separation distance.

raffic-calming measures, such as road humps, chicanes and narrowings, are intended to slow traffic down and to protect vulnerable road users. Maintain a reduced speed until you reach the end of the traffic-calming zone.

You should normally overtake on the right, but there are some occasions when you may overtake on the left. These include when you're driving on a dual carriageway or motorway and the traffic is moving slowly in queues, or when a vehicle ahead is positioned to turn right and there's room to pass on the left. On dual carriageways or motorways, don't overtake on the left if traffic is flowing freely.

If you see a motorcyclist take a quick glance over their shoulder, this could mean they're about to change direction. Recognising a clue like this helps you to be prepared and take appropriate action, making you safer on the road.

Signals should be cancelled soon after use. If a driver is unsure of the location of a junction or destination, they may signal earlier than normal while looking for their turn. Don't attempt to overtake, as they may turn suddenly.

You should always give cyclists plenty of room when you're overtaking them. When it's windy, you need to allow enough room in case a sudden gust blows them off course and into your path.

If you wish to overtake a long vehicle, stay well back so that you can see the road ahead. Don't
-get too close to the vehicle, as this will restrict your view of the road ahead
-get impatient; overtaking on a busy road calls for sound judgement
-take a gamble; only overtake when you can see that you can safely complete the manoeuvre.

If you want to turn left and there's a cyclist in front of you, hold back. Wait until the cyclist has passed the junction and then turn left behind them.

A convex mirror gives a wide view of the scene behind. However, it won't show you everything behind, or to the side of, your vehicle. Before you move off, look over your shoulder to check for anything that's not visible in the mirrors.

Be aware that other traffic might still be clearing the junction. When the green light shows, make sure the way is clear before continuing.

All warning signs are triangular, but the 'give way' sign is the only triangular sign that points downwards; this is to give it greater prominence as you approach a junction. When you see this sign, you must give way to traffic on the road that you're about to join.

After driving through flood water, it's important to make sure the brakes are working properly. Check for other traffic and, when it's safe, test your brakes. If necessary, dry them out by applying light pressure to the footbrake while driving along slowly.

When brakes are applied on a car moving in a straight line, they slow the rotation of the wheels but the rest of the car tries to continue moving forward. This shifts more of the car's weight onto the front wheels, making steering more difficult. If the car is cornering when the brakes are applied, the weight shifts both forward and towards the outside of the bend, thus the weight is loaded onto one front wheel. In severe cases, this can lead to skidding or even cause the car to roll over.

If you operate the brakes when air is in the hydraulic system, they'll have a spongy feel and braking efficiency will be reduced. This is because the air in the system is being compressed as you brake; hydraulic brake fluid alone can't be compressed. If you notice there's a fault with your brakes, have them checked as soon as possible. Don't drive with faulty brakes.

Where it's necessary to temporarily close a motorway or other main road, signs will be displayed advising drivers to follow a particular symbol in order to rejoin their route. These symbols are often permanently displayed on direction signs.

Where there's a hidden dip (dead ground), you should be aware that there could be oncoming vehicles out of sight between you and the road in the distance. Don't start to overtake until you can see into the dip and know the road ahead is clear.

This curved arrow on the road indicates the direction that traffic should pass solid double white lines that are coming up. These arrows are also used on the approach to hatch markings and low arched bridges. Sometimes the arrow may curve to the right.

Hatch markings bounded by broken white lines are designed to separate traffic lanes or to protect traffic turning right. Only drive into these areas if it's necessary and you can see that it's safe.

In a crash, the occupants of a vehicle can be thrown violently forward and then back again. The head restraint should be adjusted so that it gives maximum protection to the neck as the occupant is thrown backwards.

Carrying a heavy load in a vehicle will change its centre of gravity. This will affect the vehicle's handling on bends, compared with when it's lightly loaded. It's your responsibility to make sure that your vehicle isn't overloaded and that any load is secure.

Lane closures are normally found near roadworks. Use your mirrors and move into the correct lane for your vehicle in good time. Look out for additional signs and comply with them.

Snow chains can be fitted to your tyres when snow affects the driving conditions. They can help you to move off from rest or to keep moving in deep snow. You'll also need to adjust your driving to deal with these conditions; don't rely on technology such as anti-lock brakes to overcome bad driving choices.

You can move into a box junction as long as your exit road is clear. You can stop and wait in the junction when you want to turn right and have to wait for a gap in the oncoming traffic.

If you don't have your vehicle serviced regularly, the engine will steadily become less efficient. This loss of efficiency will progressively cause an increase in fuel consumption, engine running problems and increased risk of the vehicle breaking down.

Selecting a low gear when travelling downhill will help you to control your speed. The engine will assist the brakes and help prevent your vehicle from gathering speed.

A circular sign with a red border tells you what you mustn't do. If the circle contains a speed limit, you mustn't exceed the limit, whether the sign is temporary or not.

When coasting, the engine is disconnected from the drive to the wheels. This means that the engine's resistance can't be used to help slow the vehicle, especially when travelling downhill. There will be a little coasting every time you change gear; this can't be avoided, but it should be kept to a minimum.

If your tyres don't have enough air in them, they'll drag against the surface of the road. This makes the steering feel heavy. As well as affecting steering, under-inflated tyres can affect braking, cornering and fuel consumption.

You may use hazard warning lights when you slow suddenly on a motorway or unrestricted dual carriageway, to warn traffic behind of a hazard ahead. Never use hazard warning lights to excuse dangerous or illegal parking.

Most pedestrian crossings are for pedestrians only, but the toucan crossing has been designed to be shared by both pedestrians and cyclists. You can expect to find a toucan crossing where a cycle route and a footpath cross a road at the same point.

When approaching a zebra crossing where you intend to stop, using an arm signal can be helpful. This not only tells the vehicles behind that you intend to stop, but also informs approaching traffic and waiting pedestrians, who can't see your brake lights.

A mirror with convex glass gives a wide field of vision. This makes everything appear smaller and further away than it would look in a flat mirror.

Most motorway signs have a blue background with white lettering, numbers and borders. These signs not only confirm motorway status but are designed to give clear information to drivers travelling at motorway speeds.

Some junctions only have 'give way' lines. This is usually where there's relatively little traffic. 'Give way' signs, and/or road markings, show you that traffic on the road you want to enter has priority.

If you see a vehicle with a flashing green beacon approaching, it means the driver or passenger is a doctor on an emergency call. Allow it to pass when you can do so safely. Someone's life could depend on the driver making good progress through the traffic.

Where there are double white lines in the middle of the road and the line nearest to you is broken, you may cross the lines to overtake, provided it's safe and you can complete the manoeuvre before reaching a solid white line on your side.

A mirror with convex glass has a wide field of vision but makes it more difficult to judge the distance and speed of traffic behind. Vehicles seen in this type of mirror appear to be further away than they actually are.

You may only stop on the carriageway of a motorway
- when told to do so by the police
- when a red cross with flashing red lights shows above every lane - in a traffic jam
- in an emergency or breakdown.

You may be difficult to see when you're travelling at night, even on a well-lit road. If you use dipped headlights rather than sidelights, other road users will see you more easily.

You must obey signals given by police officers, traffic officers, traffic wardens and signs used by school crossing patrols. When a police officer signals to you to stop, you should stop safely on the left and switch off your engine.

If it's safe to do so, you may cross a solid white line to pass a road maintenance vehicle, pedal cycle or horse, if they're travelling at 10 mph (16 km/h) or less. When safe, you may also cross the solid line to enter a side road, access a property or pass a stationary vehicle.

As you approach traffic lights that have been on green for some time, anticipate that they'll soon change. Check your mirror so that you know what traffic is behind you and how far away it is. If the lights change to steady amber, you should stop behind the stop line. If you're so close to the stop line when the lights change that to stop may cause a collision, you should continue. You'll only know the risk from traffic behind if you use your mirrors as you approach the lights.

All warning signs are triangular, but the 'give way' sign is the only triangular sign that points downwards; this is to give it greater prominence as you approach a junction. When you see this sign, you must give way to traffic on the road that you're about to join.

Red flashing lights above every lane mean you mustn't go on any further. You'll also see a red cross illuminated. Stop and wait. Don't
- change lanes
- continue
- stop on the hard shoulder (unless in an emergency).

If someone is deaf as well as blind, they may be carrying a white stick with a red reflective band. You can't know whether a pedestrian is deaf. Don't assume that everyone can hear you approaching.

As you approach a school crossing patrol, you may see two amber lights, one above the other and flashing alternately. This will be accompanied by a 'school' warning sign. The school crossing patrol will display a 'stop' sign, so you must stop. Don't wave anyone across the road, get impatient or rev your engine.

Road humps, chicanes and narrowings are all traffic-calming measures designed to keep vehicle speeds low. They're used to protect vulnerable road users near areas such as housing estates and shopping centres.

Traffic signs and continuous red lines painted along the edge of the road identify a Red Route. Parking is banned along these routes and enforcement officers have powers to remove any vehicle that's illegally parked. These powers are in place to ensure the route remains unobstructed and so help the free flow of traffic.

Diamond-shaped signs apply to tram drivers. You should know their meaning so that you're aware of the priorities and are able to anticipate the actions of the driver.

The lights that control the crossing show to both directions of traffic. If a pedestrian from either side is still crossing when the amber light is flashing, you must wait.

Clearways are in place so that traffic can flow without the obstruction of parked vehicles. Just one parked vehicle can cause an obstruction for all other traffic. Don't stop where a clearway is in force - not even to set down or pick up passengers.

Anyone who accompanies a learner driver on a driving test must be at least 16 years old and must wear a seat belt. (This includes a person who holds a seat-belt exemption certificate.) The accompanying driver mustn't take any part in the test. The examiner can end the test if they feel any inappropriate communication has taken place.

When parking at night, park in the direction of the traffic flow. This will enable other road users to see the reflectors on the rear of your vehicle. You must also use parking lights where the speed limit is more than 30 mph.

If a disabled driver passes their driving test in a specifically adapted motor car, the driving licence issued will restrict them to driving vehicles fitted with the necessary adaptations.

You must be able to show your documents to a police officer when asked to do so. If you don't have them with you, you're allowed to produce them at a police station within seven days.

Always switch off the engine, remove the key and lock your car, even if you're only leaving it for a few minutes.

Anyone wishing to accompany a learner driver must be at least 21 years old and must have held (and still hold) a full licence for the category of vehicle being driven for at least three years.

Drivers and passengers must normally wear seat belts. However, a driver may remove their seat belt when carrying out an exercise that involves reversing; this also applies to driving instructors while supervising such manoeuvres.

It's illegal to use a mobile phone while you're driving (except for genuine emergencies). Driving requires your total attention and concentration at all times. Using a mobile phone will distract you and increase your chances of having a collision. Even using a hands-free system will distract you. Be safe: switch off your phone before you start driving and pick up any messages when you stop for a break.

Tyres must have enough depth of tread to give them a good grip on the road surface. The legal minimum for cars is 1.6 mm. This depth should be across the central three-quarters of the breadth of the tyre and around the entire circumference.

Car tyres must
- be correctly inflated
- have a tread depth of at least 1.6 mm across the central three-quarters of the breadth of the tread and around the entire circumference
- be free from certain cuts and other defects.
When checking tyres for cuts and bulges in the side walls, don't forget to check the inner walls (that is, those facing each other under the vehicle).

If your vehicle requires an MOT certificate, it's illegal to drive it without one. As well as being illegal, the vehicle may be unsafe for use on the road and your insurance may be invalid.

Where fitted, seat belts must be worn. It's the driver's responsibility to ensure that children under 14 years old wear a seat belt or use a suitable child restraint. Passengers aged 14 or over are responsible for wearing their seat belt. Exceptions to this law are made for people who hold a medical exemption certificate.

The driver must ensure that all passengers under 14 years of age wear a seat belt or sit in an approved child restraint. A child under 3 years of age, who's travelling in the front seat of a car, must use an approved child restraint.

Exemptions are provided in the regulations. If an inertia-reel seat belt has temporarily locked because the vehicle is parked on a gradient, the driver may move the vehicle. As soon as the mechanism has unlocked and released itself, the driver should stop and apply the belt.

The extended test takes about 70 minutes and is assessed to the same level as the standard driving test for learner drivers.

Vehicles towing trailers are subject to a speed limit of 60 mph on motorways and dual carriageways. In addition, any vehicle towing a trailer may not use the right-hand lane of a motorway that has three or more lanes.

Don't park within 10 metres (32 feet) of a junction (unless in an authorised parking place). This is to allow drivers emerging from, or turning into, the junction a clear view of the road they're joining. It also allows them to see hazards such as pedestrians or cyclists at the junction.

Sometimes an insurance company will issue a temporary insurance certificate called a cover note. It gives you the same insurance cover as your certificate, but lasts for a limited period, usually one month.

A 60 mph speed limit applies to a vehicle towing a trailer on a motorway; such a vehicle is also not allowed in the right-hand lane of a motorway that has more than two lanes.

All vehicles must display parking lights when parked on a road with a speed limit greater than 30 mph. Park in the direction of the traffic flow so that your parked vehicle isn't mistaken for a moving vehicle.

If you want to turn left and there's a cyclist in front of you, hold back. Wait until the cyclist has passed the junction and then turn left behind them.

All-round observation is essential throughout any manoeuvre in the road. A pupil should be trained to look particularly in the direction in which they're moving, to look out for vulnerable road users and to check their blind spots.

Insurance companies are likely to charge a higher premium for people who have been convicted of driving while unfit through drink or drugs. This is because they've shown that they're a risk to others on the road.

The decisions we make when driving are shaped by our attitude, norms and motivation. But we're not always aware of these. Open questions can be used to explore these issues without making the pupil defensive. You can then work with the pupil to address any unhelpful attitudes.

Everyone learns at a different rate, so you'll need to adapt your teaching to the ability of each pupil. Building confidence is an important part of teaching someone to drive. This can be hard to build but easy to lose, so be realistic in your expectations of a pupil.

Agreeing learning should be a two-way process. You can contribute your understanding of what has to be achieved and the learner can contribute their objectives and understanding. At the end of a lesson, both you and the pupil will be better placed to evaluate progress.

To design an effective programme of learning, it's important to understand what a pupil brings to the process. This will enable you to decide the level at which instruction can begin. It will also encourage the pupil to engage with the learning process if they're not forced to go over material they already know.

Sometimes another road user will use a signal whose meaning is open to interpretation. When this happens, learner drivers should make sure they understand what the other driver intends before taking any action.

If your usual techniques or methods don't appear to be working, you should discuss the matter with your pupil, and explore alternative ways of getting the point across.

Learning is far more effective when a pupil can identify for themselves the reason why something has gone wrong. If they can't work it out, you can help them to understand with an explanation or a diagram. When they understand the problem, the pupil should then practise this manoeuvre.

Motorcycles are small vehicles and can be difficult to see. If the rider wears bright clothing, it can make it easier for other road users to see them approaching, especially at junctions.